Researchers in and beyond higher education

This chapter deals with the research profession working in higher education, government, business enterprise, and non-profit private sectors. Research systems differ significantly in the degree to which their financial instruments are based on competition, in the application of uniform well-established standards and in how evaluation is carried out. In systems based on the Humboldtian tradition, research and teaching are integral university activities, while in the French tradition, separate non-teaching academies have played a significant role. The systems have a significant impact on which institutions the research profession operates in its research and experimental development roles. In different research systems, professions are modified through cross-profession and intra-profession boundaries. Professions generally seek legitimation of their work from an academic knowledge base that is internationalised and from the disciplinary knowledge base.